Navigational Arts
Navigators used many tools in the 18th and 19th Centuries to track their course at sea. The reality of navigation was a lot messier than stories about precision instruments might suggest.
From September, visitors to the Whipple Museum will encounter an example of “guerilla history” - a blue plaque from nearby Bene’t Street which was repeatedly graffitied to acknowledge Rosalind Franklin’s enormous contribution to our understanding of genetics.
Summer at the Museums is back for 2025!
Join us at the Whipple Museum for hands-on activities in the Learning Gallery this summer.
Optics and Observations
Discover the wonders of optics and light through hands-on instruments and activities at the Whipple Museum — from microscopes to make-your-own spectacles!
Mr Whipple really loved optics, instruments which use light to help scientists to see things. That means that the Whipple museum is packed with microscopes, telescopes and even spectacles and opera glasses! Come and explore some of our handling instruments, find out how to bend and reflect light and create your own spectacular spectacles.
Free- drop in session.
This event is part of Summer at the Museums 2025.
Imperial powers used colonial spaces to test new scientific programmes. Egypt provides a dramatic example: the Great Pyramid of Giza was a site of study and disagreement amongst European scholars in the 18th and 19th Centuries.
In the 1860s, the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, Charles Piazzi Smyth, boldly claimed this ancient monument as fundamentally British. The Great Pyramid, he argued, embodied complex, precise knowledge of astronomy and metrology—the science of measurement. This made it a “Metrological Monument” built by the ancient Israelites using God-given measures that were the direct antecedents of the British inch.
The Whipple Museum collections are now fully online!
Like other museums, only a small proportion of our collection is on display at any one time and, in the current public health situation, physical access to museums has become very challenging. But now you can search and browse through records and images of close to 7,000 objects, as well as records of our Trade Literature – all from the comfort of your own home.
In addition, our Researcher Portal allows you to download images, book research visits, request permission to publish images, and suggest ways we can correct or improve our records.
The project was a collaboration with the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (MAA), funded by Arts Council England, through the Designation Development Fund. As well as a smart new front end for researchers and members of the public, this collaboration improved the Museum’s database – its functionality, quality of information and security – and has deepened connections with MAA.
This project was also made possible by increased physical security in our museum, a long-term development that was aided by funding from DCMS Wolfson and expertise from University Security.
As always, we are grateful for support from the Arts & Humanities Research Council, and to colleagues in other museums for advice, especially the other University of Cambridge museums and collections in UCM. Special thanks are also due to Rosanna Evans, Danielle Cagliuso, Claire Wallace, Dr Chris Wingfield, Dr Mark Elliott, Jacob Baldwin, Terry Chivers, and Linear Blue.
Mixed navigational arts
No single technology or method ‘solved’ the challenge of accurately determining the position of a ship on the open ocean.
Sailors continued to track location by ‘dead reckoning’: charting course (by compass), speed (by log (Image 1)), depth (by sounding lead (Image 2)), and judging currents by experience and lookout.
Typically, this work was then checked against chronometers (if carried) and compared with results calculated from lunar distance observations.
All these techniques had their pros and cons, and the safest method was to use them in conjunction.
Untrustworthy clockwork
Chronometers like the beautiful example shown in Image 3 are often seen as the outstanding, state-of-the-art solution to the problem of maritime navigation in the age of empire.
This is in part due to Dava Sobel’s engaging best-seller Longitude (1995), which has promoted the misleading notion that John Harrison’s marine timekeepers solved the problem of determining longitude at sea.
In reality, although Harrison’s H4 clock (completed 1759) and the chronometers that succeeded it did keep Greenwich time reasonably well aboard ship, many navigators remained sceptical of clockwork. Chronometers were extremely expensive, and their fragility and unreliability meant that several had to be carried together.
As the navigator Andrew Mackay noted in his 1804 instruction manual, the most prevalent rival method—computing longitude by sextant and lunar tables—was already established as a reliable and relatively simple technique:
“Of all the various modes which have been proposed to determine the longitude of a ship at sea, it is probable the method by lunar observations will always claim the pre-eminence, upon this account, that the lunar tables are now brought to a very great degree of exactness, as also the method of constructing instruments proper for taking the necessary observations; and the modes of calculation are far from being difficult.
"The same degree of confidence cannot be placed in time-keepers, as their rate of going is so liable to be altered from the least accidental injury.”(1)
Shipboard astronomers
For major voyages of discovery, professionally-trained astronomers were often hired to join ships, both to assist with navigation and to execute one of principal goals of these imperial enterprises: the claiming of new territory by naming and charting it. In 1791, for example, the Board of Longitude commissioned the astronomer William Gooch to join George Vancouver’s expedition to the Pacific, instructing him to:
“make nautical, astronomical and trigonometrical observations … for fixing the latitude and longitude of various points of … coast and country, and to ascertain their relative positions with respect to each another, and also to make nautical and astronomical observations during the voyage out and home, all tending to the improvement of geography and navigation.”(2)
Once in the Pacific, Gooch recorded in his journal that “No sooner had we left the Marquesas, than we fell in with four new Islands, never before seen by Europeans, ever since which time I have been employed in Surveying them, settling their Latitude, and Longitude, and laying them down on a Chart.”(3)
Unfortunately for Gooch, he would not live to see his observations returned to the Admiralty in London. In May 1792, Gooch and two other sailors were killed during a botched attempt to trade for supplies at Waimea on the island of Oahu.
References
- Andrew Mackay, The Complete Navigator: Or, an Easy and Familiar Guide to the Theory and Practice of Navigation (London: Longman and Rees, 1804), p.169
- Board of Longitude’s instructions to William Gooch, [1791], Cambridge University Library RGO 14/9, 61v-63v.
- Quoted in: Richard Dunn, ‘Heaving a Little Ballast: Seaborne Astronomy in the Late-Eighteenth Century’, in: Marcus Granato & Marta C. Lourenço (eds.), Scientific Instruments in the History of Science: Studies in Transfer, Use and Preservation (Museu de Astronomia e Ciências Afins, 2014), 79–100, on p.88.
Joshua Nall
Joshua Nall, ‘Navigational Arts’, Explore Whipple Collections, Whipple Museum of the History of Science, University of Cambridge, 2020.